Case study write-up Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Case study write-up - Essay Example The Envirofit team thought the venture was simple and hoped it will help to reduce the pollution in the motorcycle engines. Social and environmental challenges can be tackled through development of technology such as the one developed y the team of the engineering students. The snowmobile technology that was developed for the Yellowstone National Park was aimed to avoid noise and pollution in the park. They used the technology to to fit onto existing machines and placed initially on the emissions event in the clean Snowmobile challenge that reduced hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions by over 99%. Since this was successful, it was subsequently applied in motorcycles. The inventory of the Envirofit was instrumental in ensuring an environmental safe and friendly vehicle. Modification of existing technology is instrumental in promoting and bettering the existing technology. For instance, the snowmobile was to be abandoned from the national park. However, the modification by the team made it relevant for the snowmobile to be used in the park as well as motorcycles as well as other vehicles. While working in the project, the team was engaging with each other as well as other relevant interested people as the NGO and the community. This helped in forming relationships as well as fostering teamwork among the team. Working in a project as big as the Envirofit is challenging and requires perseverance and a lot of patience. The project is time consuming and requires dedication as well as commitment for it to be accomplished successfully. This instils discipline in the participants in the project who get to learn on how meet deadlines and deliver satisfactory results. As the team in Envirofit observed it is beneficial to get local partners to participate in an environment. This would give businesses the concept of credibility; it would make the business more effective and efficient. The real

Principles of Providing Administrative Services Essay Example for Free

Principles of Providing Administrative Services Essay Understand how to make and receive calls When working in a business environment, anyone who deals with administration is most likely going to have to use office equipment, systems and procedures. These will range from telephones to photocopiers, computers to coffee making facilities for guests. Knowing how to operate these and understand what they are for is an essential skill in the business administration department. Presenting the right image therefore is important and understanding how to make and receive telephone calls appropriately is a part of this image as you will have to speak to colleagues, managers, customers and other people each day. Telephone systems have many different features other than the handset and dials/buttons which are used to handle calls professionally. Call holding features are those which are used to place a caller on hold whilst you complete another task. This could be to locate paperwork, look up the caller’s details and information before speaking to them or contact another colleague whom the caller wishes to speak to Call waiting features let you know when there is a caller on the line who wishes to speak to you when you are already using the telephone. These are usually lights which flash or tones which beep to let you know there is a caller waiting Re-directing calls are available on telephone systems where you may be required to forward a call to another colleague. Usually they are features on the telephone which state ‘redirect’ or ‘transfer’ Answer phone features record messages from callers when you or other colleagues are unavailable Teleconferencing features enable others (more than two people) to hold a ‘conference’ style conversation over the telephone. These are now often enhanced with video imaging equipment via a computer TEXT MESSAGE features enable you to send and receive text style messages (as on a mobile phone). ON HOLD 0 This allows you to put the caller on hold while you locate the person who the call is for or perhaps you need to ask a colleague for help/advice without the calling hearing what you are saying. CALL FORWARDING This function allows you redirect a call to another telephone. This can also be used if you will be away from your desk and wish to divert your extension to a colleague. CALL BACK When you are calling a number that is engaged this function will let you know when the line is free, this will save you time by attempting to call back manually. INTERRUPT When your phone is in use it will ‘bleep’ as a signal that another caller is trying to get through. LAST NUMBER REDIAL This function is normally one button that you press to redial the last used number. DO NOT DISTURB This allows you to stop calls coming through to your phone while you are unavailable, for example when a meeting is taking place. HUNT GROUP This is when an office has a group of telephones all linked to one telephone number; so that calls can be passed around the team until someone answers it. Your organisation will have procedures that need to be followed when using the telephone. Some larger organisations will have written guidelines that they expect to be followed, whereas smaller companies may ask you to observe a more experienced member of staff to learn how to receiving/making calls. It is important to remember that when using the telephone you are representing your workplace; your caller cannot see you so the way you communicate will give the caller an immediate impression, hopefully a good one. Rules to follow when answering calls: * Answer promptly and identify yourself to the caller following your organisations guidelines, â€Å"Good morning/good afternoon, name of company, your name if applies, how may I help you?† * Even if you are busy when you have answered the phone does not let the caller know this, as this will give a bad impression of you and the company. * Do not ignore your colleagues’ phone if it is ringing, answer it and offer to take a message. * Speak with a smile in your voice; this actually helps people to sound more helpful and pleasant. * It is good practice to have a pen and paper ready to take messages. * Do not answer the phone while you are drinking or eating, even if the call is internal. * Answer the caller’s questions with accurate and up to date information, if you cannot answer their questions find someone who can or offer to call them back. * Remember how important confidentiality is when providing information to callers, never give out customer or staff personal details, for example information such as home address, date or birth etc. * If the caller wants to speak to a specific person/department, take these details and transfer the call, remember to introduce the caller to the next person. * Rules to follow when making calls: * Prepare first, you need to know why you are calling in the first place so that you can explain to the person who will answer the phone. * If information is lengthy write yourself a bullet point list of the main notes. * Keep your notepad nearby in case you need to take notes. * Always tell the person who answers the phone who you are and why you are calling. * Make sure you can hear and understand the information you are being told, do not be embarrassed to ask someone to repeat themselves if it is not clear. * If the person answering your call has been helpful, thank them for their time. Taking Messages * When answering a call if the person the caller wishes to speak to is not available, offer to take a message. Rules to follow when taking messages: * Make sure you include all the key facts; this includes the caller’s name, company name, telephone number, any other relevant information the caller wishes you to pass on. * Check all the details with the caller before ending the call. * Write the message clearly to make sure the other person will understand what you are communicating. * Write the time, date of the call on your written message and your own name so the other person can speak to you if they have any questions. Understand how to handle mail Some large organisations have a post room that deals with all incoming and outgoing mail, some have responsible person/persons, and in small organisations everyone is responsible for the post. It is important to follow the correct procedures for receiving, checking and sorting incoming and outgoing mail or packages. If a mistake is made then someone may be waiting on the arrival of an important document and it may go to the wrong person, or even go missing completely. Within most office environments there will be a system and set of procedures for handling incoming and outgoing mail. Staff responsible for receiving and posting mail will have to ensure that: incoming mail has been checked that it has been addressed to the correct organisation and sorted by department or person incoming mail is correctly received and given to the correct recipient outgoing mail is sorted and is correctly labelled with the right postage charge out-going mail is appropriate and relevant to the business (not personal mail). Mail will be in the forms of parcels, letters, recorded deliveries, packages and other mail (including promotional materials/junk mail etc.). Within an organisation there will be different internal and external mail systems. Internal mail systems will involve: Inter-departmental collection points such as pigeon holes or boxes where staff can collect mail relevant to those working within their department. There may also be outgoing postal trays for mail which comes from a department which then needs to be sent from a central office or location site transfer systems – collection and redistribution systems when mail is received into one location but needs to be taken to another (for example, this system would be used when offices are spread out over an industrial park or office block) internal envelopes used for mail which is not being externally posted but sent to staff within an organisation. External mail systems will involve: External mail post boxes (centrally located or collected by administrative staff from departments before being posted externally) recorded delivery postage special delivery postage courier services. Understand how to use different types of office equipment When working within an office environment you will use various types of equipment in order to carry out your role. It is important you know how to use this equipment in order to remain safe and keep risk to a minimum. You may be provided with training at your workplace or you may be asked to refer to the manufacturer’s guide for the equipment you use. Either way it is your responsibility to use all equipment in the correct way and to report any faulty equipment to the relevant person immediately. Manufactures’ guidelines are there for a reason. If you follow the basic guidance then you will not do anything that may harm you or others and the equipment will last longer. The main equipment you will come across in an office is as follows: FAX MACHINES Need to be placed in an area where everyone has access to it and you are able to clearly see when a fax has arrived. Faults could include paper jams, being offline, engaged tone, out of paper, wiring faults, some of these may require expert help so should be reported. PHOTOCOPIERS Should be placed in an open area so there is sufficient air around them, sometimes in a separate room. Faults include paper jams, out of toner etc. Only trained staff should remove paper jams and replace toner. SHREDDERS Used to destroy confidential documents, paper can be recycled, must be over 18 years old to use. Faults include: overloading can cause paper jams, this should be resolved by trained person to avoid harm. GUILLOTINES Used to cut paper, must be over 18 years old to use. BINDING MACHINES Used to bind documents together, do not overload as these can cause the machine to break and ruin documents resulting in wasted resources. FILING CABINETS Used to store documents, drawers must be closed after use to avoid tripping hazards, also must not be overloaded. Never attempt to move a cabinet. COMPUTERS VDU must be at correct height for eye level, also adjust your chair to accommodate posture requirements. Any computer faults should be reported to a Computer Technician. PRINTERS/ SCANNERS It is good practice to proofread all documents before printing to keep waste to a minimum. To be kept where all users can access. Any faults should be reported to a trained Technician. AUDIO MACHINES Used to listen and play back tapes that need to be typed up into the relevant format e.g. letter, memo, report. Each user normally has their own set of earphones for hygiene reasons. Once you have completed a document you can erase the tape and use it again. When using equipment in the workplace it is important to keep it clean and well maintained, especially if you are sharing equipment or desks. You can do this by working in an organised tidy manner, storing equipment safely and cleaning it with the appropriate products. For example using screen wipes for your computer monitor (VDU). You can minimise the number of germs on your keyboard by not eating or drinking at your desk. If you are sharing workspace with others it is good practice to leave the area in a clean and organised manner for the next person in order to give a good impression of the type of person you are. In some organisations you may be required to have a clear desk policy, which means you must leave your desk clear and tidy at the end of the day or when you are away from your desk. Understand how to keep waste to a minimum in a business environment Waste has a huge impact on our carbon footprint and to the cost of running a business. There are many causes of waste in a business environment and many things you can do to prevent it: Paper Proof read before printing, ask yourself do you need to print, email instead of printing, double side when printing or photocopying and use any scrap paper to make note pads. Envelopes, plastic wallets folders – Re use them if you can. Electricity – Turn off computers, monitors and other electrical equipment, do not leave equipment charging over night or for longer periods than necessary and turn lights and heating off when not needed. Many businesses have recycling policies and have put into place measures to make it easy to recycle. You may have an external company that takes away the shredding, toner cartridges or even batteries. There are sometimes allocated bins for paper, cardboard, tins, plastic and glass. Know how to make arrangements for meetings As an administrator you may be called upon to organise and support business meetings. Meetings form a major part of communications within the modern business world. The clear advantage of calling a meeting is that they enable face-to face contact with a number of people at one time, whereas if the communication were done by written communication, it would be difficult to gain a full overview of decisions, involvement etc. It is an opportunity for gaining a wide cross section of opinion where two-way dialogue is encouraged via the asking/answering of questions. What is important for an effective meeting to take place is that the right people are invited and that they are sufficiently briefed in advance so that they can make a worthwhile contribution.   The disadvantage of a meeting is that they can become too numerous, resulting in a great deal of frustration and boredom, owing to a lot of lengthy and often irrelevant discussion, and achieving little or nothing. Also it can be difficult to arrange dates and times convenient for all those who ought to attend, especially when sufficient notice is not given and the people attending have prior commitments. Most people do not like attending meetings – especially if they are not sure what the purpose of the meeting is, or if it goes on too long and achieves too little. Meetings must not be too frequent or held just for the sake of it. There must be a need for a meeting. There should be decisions about the different types of meetings needed. For example, some meetings could be to discuss policy and others to discuss organisation (practical work). Wherever possible the members must know what type of meeting they are going to and what the meeting is for – in other words, the PURPOSE of the meeting. Sometimes an organisation might call a special or extraordinary meeting. There are different types of meetings and planning and it should take account of this. Different types of meetings Most organisations will hold the following types of meetings: The general members meeting This is the most common meeting, which usually happens once a month or once every two weeks. The general members meeting should be the place where members are informed of developments, involved in decisions and given education and information that will help them to become more active in the organisation. General meetings are usually the places where decisions are made and where the executive reports on work they and other sub-committees have done. Special meetings These can be called to discuss specific issues, for example preparing for a national conference or work on planning activities for the year. Any members who are interested should be invited to attend special meetings. They should not be run like general members meetings (with minutes, reports etc) but should only focus on the issues they’ve been called to discuss. Executive meetings The executive should meet more regularly than the general members, and executive meetings should have a more business-like focus. The executive has to plan implementation for the organisation, monitor the work that has been done, deal with problems, and often (if you’re part of a larger organisation) relate to other levels of the organisation. They should discuss correspondence in detail and address problems as they come up. The executive should also keep an eye on the finances of the organisation and monitor income and expenditure. Every executive meeting should have an item on the agenda that plans for the next general members meeting. They should provide both leadership and administration to the organisation. Annual General Meeting Most organisations have an Annual General Meeting laid down in their constitution. The AGM is the place where the executive accounts to all members about the activities of the year as well as the finances of the organisation. The AGM is also the place where new leaders are elected and are given a mandate to run the organisation for another year. Most AGM’s need at least the following two detailed reports to the members: The secretary’s report that lists plans of the organisation, the actual activities that took place that year, the achievements of the year, and the problems experienced. The treasurer’s report: a detailed financial report that lists all income from subscriptions, grants, donations, fundraising; and all expenditure. This report should also clearly state what the balance is and where that balance is held. It is important to have a written financial report at your AGM but very often members find financial reports difficult to understand and you should try and make it simpler by putting the main headings on news-prints and explaining it to people in less financial language. Planning a meeting Planning should improve participation by ensuring that discussion is on a single topic and that the members are well prepared for the meeting. This is the responsibility of the Chairperson, Secretary and Executive, depending on the type of organisation. Planning does not mean controlling and directing the meeting in such a way that it restricts participation Planning should include the following: Notification- It is the executive’s responsibility to ensure that everyone has been notified of the date, time and venue of the meeting, as well as the main issues to be discussed. For many organisations it is a useful practice to always have their meetings on the same day at the same time in the same place – for example on the first Saturday of every month at the local church hall. If you do not money to always inform your members of meetings then over time this will help you to cut costs, and to make sure that everyone knows where they can find the meeting. Preparing the agenda The agenda is a list of the most important issues for the members to discuss, it is drawn from the Matters Arising from the previous meeting and from the discussions of the Executive or Secretariat. The agenda is the responsibility of the Chairperson and the Secretary. The chairperson should read the minutes of the previous meeting to familiarise him/herself with the issues. This will form the basis of a list of matter arising from these minutes. Matters arising include: Tasks a report back must be given Matters for which further information was required for discussion Matters that were deferred to this meeting There are standard items for any agenda. These items should be arranged in order of priority and time should be allocated for each discussion. Where possible, try to familiarise yourself with each area of discussion. An agenda should include a last item known as General or Any Other Business to allow individuals to raise short items not included on the agenda. Understand procedures for organising travel and accommodation arrangements. If you are involved in arranging events for your company then this may involve many different aspects of planning. Before doing any of the planning you will need to establish what your budget is, it would not be sensible to book guests into a five star hotel at  £100 per night when only  £40 has been budgeted for, or booking first class flights when you should have booked economy. Consideration needs to be taken whether the event is local, national or international, as this will have an effect on the type of transport used to get to the venue. Will you need to book flights, car hire, taxis, trains or perhaps a coach? If people are travelling by car then is there parking close by, does the accommodation have parking? There are different types of overnight accommodation available from bed and breakfasts to hotels. How many nights will people need to stay? Will an evening meal be required? You must check that there are no disabilities that need special preparation for. Someone may need access to a wheelchair, lift, ramp or hearing loop. An interpreter may be needed if English is a second language. You must know you own limits of authority, when to seek guidance and the budget you have to work within. Resources may be needed, for example: †¢ Stationery – Pens, paper   Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ Equipment – Flip charts, laptops (possible Internet access), overhead projectors, chairs †¢ Refreshments – Tea, coffee, water, main meals – taking into consideration any dietary needs that people may have If arranging this type of event it is usual practice for your company then you may already have regular suppliers, if not then you may need to shop around to find a suitable supplier within your given budget. There are many different sources of information available to help you to make your arrangements. You can look on the Internet, use regular suppliers, use internal information from colleagues, or paper based information from previous events, or you could use an agent but be aware that an agent will charge a fee for doing a job that you can do. When you have finalised all the details your end the next thing to do is to give this information to all persons attending the event. Information such as: Time and date of event, travel and accommodation details, map of area, places to park and prices, who to contact for further details or if they have any special needs, agenda and list of anything that needs to be brought Understand diary management procedures. Diaries are an essential planning aid that all organisations will use at some point; some use them more than others depending on the nature of the business. It is important to use a diary to help teams and individuals to plan tasks/activities, some of which will involve very strict deadlines. You can log information such as date, timings and locations of the people who are involved. Diaries can also help staff to know the whereabouts of their colleagues and when they are available to speak to. For example if you answer a call for a colleague but are not sure where they are, you could refer to the staff diary to locate this information (as long as this is accurate and up to date). There are various types of manual diaries that are available; these vary from a large, page-a day type to a smaller version with up to a week on view on each two pages. You need the size that will enable you to write clear information on the tasks you need to do and/or the appointments under each date. Manual diaries are often used for personal appointments and are individual to each person. Other people that may use these are secretaries or PAs. Nowadays electronic or computerised diaries are used much more in companies, especially those that book a large amount of appointments, e.g. hospitals, dentists, garages, electrical and gas companies etc. One of the most frequently used electronic diary programs in business is Microsoft Outlook, because it is compatible with other Microsoft Office software, such as Word. Outlook can be used to maintain your diary, organise and manage lists of tasks you have to do, and keep an address book of your contacts. You can use it as an e-mail software program and also use it to check the schedules of other people in your team; this is useful to book team meetings. Some companies also purchase PDAs for their staff, these offer many usable features including functions such as a â€Å"to do† list, address book, a calculator, a reminder option and a memo pad. They are compatible with the PC so that information can be downloaded easily. Understand the purpose of delivering effective customer service and how to do so. Customers expect good customer service. They expect the service provider to have: * A thorough knowledge of what the organisation has to offer in regards to services and products. * The ability to project a positive image to all customers and meet their needs within the organisations’ limitations. * Good communications skills regardless of form or mode. * Staff that can help customers with any questions or queries they may have promptly. * An excellent understanding of the organisation’s procedures that specify how customers can be dealt with. * The product/service that is being advertised readily available and to be sold at the stated price. It is important to be efficient as you may be first point of contact for the whole organisation and this can create a lasting impression. You do not want to seem unprofessional, as this will not give customers any confidence in their dealings with your organisation. It is essential that you gain your customers’ trust. It is also important to meet or exceed your customers’ expectations to lead to repeat and new business.   We all hear, but how many of us actually listen? Actively listening to your customers will enable you to identify exactly what it is they want and give you the opportunity to recognise if there are any additional products or services that may be of interest to them. There are many different types of customers and it is important to identify them so that you evaluate the type of requirement they may have and what you have to do to meet them.   You may have to deal with a regular customer who you are familiar with, don’t forget to treat everyone with the same respect, just because you know this person it does not mean you can stop portraying a professional image. You may also have to deal with service suppliers or maintenance persons who need directing to different parts of the building, or need you to stay with them whilst they are in parts of the building where they should not have access unless accompanied. You may have to deal with internal or external customers, just remember whoever they are to be polite, as you are portraying the professional image of your company. Understand the purpose of reception services and how to follow reception producer. Many administrators undertake receptionist duties. Some companies may have a specialist reception desk and some smaller firms are likely to expect a receptionist to undertake a variety of administration or telephone duties at the same time. There are many skills required to work on a reception: †¢ A thorough knowledge of your organisation, its structure and the names and job roles of people who work there †¢ The ability to project a positive image to all visitors and help them with their needs and problems †¢ An excellent understanding of your company’s procedures that specify how visitors must be dealt with All visitors should be greeted with a smile and a welcome, no matter whether they are expected or not, or important or not. Don’t assume that the best-dressed visitors are the most important many receptionists have made this mistake and, in some cases, annoyed very key people. Treat everyone with the same courtesy, and make them feel that you have time for them. It is important to be efficient as in some cases the receptionist is the first point of contact with the whole organisation and this can create a lasting impression. You do not want to seem unprofessional, as this will not give visitors any confidence in their dealings with your organisation. The receptionist has many roles to perform. As they are seen as the first point of contact then they are often required to give directions or escort visitors to different parts of the building, they are often asked for general information or to solve problems. Communication is a major role and the receptionist should know how to use their communication skills to get the most out of the way they communicate with visitors. An appropriate tone and level of voice are required. Some organisations have a signing in procedure for visitors, in which case it is the role of the receptionist to ensure that this is done and that any identification badges are given out. In large organisations when a visitor goes into the building they are issued with basic health and safety details, for example, what to do in the event of a fire. Security procedures must be complied with; therefore it is essential that the receptionist is familiar with what these are. If these procedures are not complied with then there will be a breach of the security regulations. If you see someone who you think should not be in particular part of the building then err on the side of caution and report them to your line manager. Security in an organisation may: †¢ Allow for unrestricted visitor access †¢ Restrict visitor access to certain areas †¢ Allow restricted access to certain areas only if accompanied, and then only after visitors have complied with certain screening procedures Dealing with hostile visitors can be difficult, stay calm, listen, look sympathetic, apologise if necessary, and if any of this does not work then make sure you know what to do. You may have a security guard you can call or an alarm you can press for assistance.

Effect Of Temperature On The Digestive Enzyme Pepsin Biology Essay

Effect Of Temperature On The Digestive Enzyme Pepsin Biology Essay In this study an experiment was carried out to determine if varied temperatures affect the rate at which enzymes function. Enzymes are biological catalysts; catalysts are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being used up (BBC, 2010), without these catalysts it would take an extremely long time for these reactions to take place. The enzyme used in this particular experiment was pepsin; pepsin is a zymogen of pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is activated by hydrochloric acid, which is released from parietal cells in the stomach lining. The hormone gastrin and the vagus nerve trigger the release of both pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid from the stomach lining when food is ingested. Hydrochloric acid creates an acidic environment, which allows pepsinogen to unfold and cleave itself in an autocatalytic fashion, generating pepsin. (Life Science Network, 2010) A lot can be learnt about enzymes by studying the rate of enzyme catalyzed reactions, these rates of reaction can be studied in various ways. In this experiment, using a range of different temperatures, the enzyme pepsin will be mixed with egg albumen. This is high in protein and bound to the dye Coomassie blue to gain a light absorbance reading using a spectrophotometer and in effect see how much protein has been digested by the pepsin. Egg albumen was used as the protein source in this study as although it is composed mainly of around 80% water it has about 15% of its total mass made up from approximately 40 different types of proteins, mainly Ovalbumin (54%) (Edin Formatics, 1999). A spectrophotometer is a device used for measuring light intensity and will be used to determine the amount of protein in each mixture, it works by measuring the light intensity as a function of the colour or more specifically the wavelength of light (Global Water Instrumentation Inc, 2007) (Appendix 2). Therefore the lower the reading means less light has been absorbed by the solution being tested indicating in this case that more protein (egg albumen) has been digested by the enzyme (pepsin) and the lower the reading the faster the enzyme reaction rate. If enzyme reactions are affected by temperature, then changes in temperature may bring about different absorbances of light readings related to how much protein has been broken down by the enzyme. As pepsin is found in the stomach it would seem only logical to assume the optimum temperature for this particular enzyme would be around 37Â °c, human body temperature. Method A cuvette was filled with 0.5ml of distilled water and placed in a spectrophotometer, then the machine was calibrated by pressing the zero button with the spectrophotometer set to a wavelength of 595nm. After calibration 0.5ml of egg albumen (2mg.cm-Â ³) was added to a test tube using a glass pipette and incubated in a pre heated water bath at a temperature of 10Â °c (then 20Â °c, 30Â °c, 40Â °c, 50Â °c, 60Â °c, 70Â °c) for five minutes. 0.5ml of pepsin (0.1%) was then added to the test tube and incubated at the same temperature for a further ten minutes. After this incubation period 2.0ml of Coomassie blue reagent was added to the test tube and immediately mixed by capping the test tube with parafilm and inverting several times. After the test tubes contents had been mixed they were carefully poured into a cuvette and placed into the spectrophotometer with the light absorbance levels being recorded at a wavelength of 595nm. The experiment was carried out three times at each temperature to achieve reliable data. Results The results documented in Table 1 are the light absorbance reading averages of three separate experiments carried out at each temperature. A full set of results can be seen in Appendix 1. Figure 1 shows the averaged results plotted on a scatter graph. Table 1 Temperature (Degrees Celsius) Average light absorbance at 595nm 10 2.501 20 2.550 30 2.516 40 2.403 50 2.543 60 2.740 70 2.806 Fig 1 Change absorbance Discussion The results in Table 1 as well as the bell curve graph (Fig 1) show that the optimum temperature as predicted in the hypothesis seems to be 40Â °c, close to human body temperature. These results also show that temperature has a definite effect on the rate the enzyme reacts to breakdown the protein in the egg albumen. Table 1 shows that at 10Â °c, 20Â °c and 30Â °c the light absorbed by the solution is more than at 40Â °c, this is because the pepsin has not broken down as much of the egg albumen at lower temperatures as it has at 40Â °c so the spectrophotometer is picking up more undigested protein particles in these readouts. The same applies to the temperatures above 40Â °c and indicates 40Â °c is the best temperature range for pepsin to be active. Enzymes are made up of amino acids; amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins consisting of a basic amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom and an organic side group attached to the carbon atom (Biology Online, 2010). When an enzyme is formed it is made by stringing together between 100 to 1,000 amino acids in a specific and unique order defining the three dimensional shape of the enzyme and its particular chemical reactivity (Brain, M. 2000). The lock and key theory explains how an enzyme may work, it utilizes the concept of an active site on the enzyme. The theory is that a particular part of the enzymes surface has a strong affinity to the substrate (protein). The substrate is held in such a way that its conversion to the reaction products is more favorable. If you consider the enzyme is the lock and the substrate is the key, the key is inserted in the lock and turns it to open the door letting the reaction proceed (Worthington Biochemical Corporation, 2010) (Appendix 3). However, the induced fit theory expands on the rigid lock and key theory. This updated view of enzymology proposes that the substrate causes a conformational change in the enzyme so the active site achieves the exact configuration for a reaction to occur, the overall effect being a tighter binding between the enzyme and substrate (Allaby, M. 1999) (Appendix 4). The benefit of this tighter binding would be a faster reaction rate as more surface area of the enzyme would be in contact with the substrate. The kinetic collision theory describes temperature affects on a system as the amount of kinetic energy it has, a lower temperature will provide less kinetic energy than a higher temperature. When molecules collide the kinetic energy can be converted into chemical potential energy, if the chemical potential is great enough the activation energy or energy required for an enzyme to work can be reached. The more chemical potential energy molecules have when they collide, a greater number of molecules per unit time will reach the activation energy needed to bind the enzymes active site to the protein resulting in a quicker rate of reaction. If the temperature gets too high some of the weak bonds that determine the shape of a protein and its active site could be broken resulting in the enzyme becoming denatured and decreasing the rate of reaction sometimes rendering the enzyme inactive (Brooklyn College, 2010). Figure 1 shows that after 50Â °c the enzyme reaction rate slows down considera bly, the enzyme is denaturising at a faster rate than it is below 30Â °c. This change in enzyme reaction rate may be due to the fact that pepsins are stored at low temperatures to prevent the enzyme destroying itself, therefore pepsin is less active at lower temperatures until it reaches its activation energy around 30Â °c and anything beyond around 50Â °c 55Â °c will rapidly denature the pepsin so the molecules in the active site can no longer bind to the protein and produce a reaction, rendering the enzyme inactive permanently. Once the pepsin has digested the egg albumen it would still be difficult to analyse the amount of protein left at each temperature, this is why Coomassie was added before taking a reading. In an acidic environment the protein will bind to Coomassie causing a spectral shift from a reddish/brown colour with a low absorbance maximum of 465nm to a light blue colour with a higher maximum absorbance of 610nm with the difference of the two colours greatest at 595nm, an optimal wavelength (Thermo Fisher Scientific, 2010). The binding of the Coomassie takes place when the red form donates its free electron to the ionisable groups on the protein causing a disruption of the proteins normal state and revealing its hydrophobic pockets. These pockets, via Van der Waals forces (attractive and repulsive forces between molecules) bind to the non polar region of the dye, putting the positive amine groups close to the negative charge of the dye, creating a strong bond. Binding of the protein stabilizes the blue form of Coomassie dye, thus the amount of complex present in solution is a measure for the protein concentration by use of an absorbance reading. (Bradford M, 1976, P248-254) Although this experiment has produced reliable accurate data that has proven the hypothesis right, many things could affect the results and readings obtained. When using such an accurate way of recording the data such as a spectrophotometer a number of things could affect the reliability of the results. Things like minor differences in volumes of substances added to the test tubes or inattentive timing methods could be damaging to the results obtained. Simple human error could possibly influence any results with any fingerprints or water on the cuvette affecting the absorbance readings. Conclusion In conclusion, the study carried out was adequate for the data required and indicated that temperature definitely affects the rate at which an enzyme reacts. As long as the method is executed well this is a great experiment to look at temperature and its effect on enzyme activity however as with any scientific study human input is a crucial factor and could affect the quality of results. Another experiment may need to be carried out to determine what the optimum temperature is on a more specific scale, something closer to body temperature would help to discover a more precise optimum temperature, 35Â °c 40Â °c for example. As well as finding out an exact optimum temperature a further study to find out the optimum pH of pepsin could be done to further enhance the enzymes rate of reaction, focused around the acidic pH in the human stomach. Appendices Appendix 1 Temperature (Â °c) Absorbance at 595nm (Reading 1) Absorbance at 595nm (Reading 2) Absorbance at 595nm (Reading 3) 10 2.430 2.550 2.520 20 2.480 2.530 2.640 30 2.500 2.510 2.540 40 2.360 2.400 2.450 50 2.520 2.560 2.550 60 2.660 2.780 2.780 70 2.800 2.820 2.800 Appendix 2 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spetrophotometer-en.svg Appendix 3 http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/Carboxypeptidase/images/lockkey.jpg Appendix 4 http://wpcontent.answers.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Induced_fit_diagram.svg/450px-Induced_fit_diagram.svg.png

The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe :: essays papers

The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe Communism is like Prohibition - it's a good idea but it won't work" (Will Rogers, 1927) (1) This essay will give a brief introduction to communism. It will then discuss the various factors which combined to bring about the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe. It will examine each of these factors and evaluate the effect of each. Finally it will attempt to assertain whether Rogers' opinion (see above quotation) on Communism is true, that is, whether communism was truly doomed to fail from the start, or whether its collapse was a result of external influences. Communism is based on the ideas and teachings of Karl Marx as modified by Lenin. At its most basic, the ideal of communism is a system in which everyone is seen as equal and wealth is distributed equally among the people. There is no private ownership. The state owns and controls all enterprises and property. The state is run by one leading elite. The Soviet model of communism was based on these ideals. All opposition parties were banned although parties who were sympathetic to communism and who shared the communist ideals were allowed. All power was concentrated into the hands of the Communist party. Free press and civil liberties were suppressed. Censorship and propaganda were widely used. There was state ownership of the economy. No private enterprise was allowed. There was a collectivisation of agriculture. The Communist Party invaded and controlled every aspect of political, social, cultural and economic life. It was a totalitarian state with complete Communist control over all facets of life. In the early years, and up until Gorbachev's "new regime", the use of force and terror as a means of maintaining control was widespread. The first factor which contributed to the failure and eventual collapse of communism was the fact that the Communist party's domination was illegitimate from the beginning. Lenin came to power after a bloody Civil War between those who supported Lenin and those who opposed the Soviet regime. To Lenin, defeat was unthinkable and he was prepared to make any and every sacrifice to win the war and save "the revolution". The forcible requisitioning of food and supplies was approved by Lenin. This could only be achieved by enforcing strict and absolute discipline at every level of society. Terror was to become the chief instrument of power and Lenin was to assume the role of dictator. This was a phenomenon which was to become a symbol of communist regimes throughout their lifetime. This trend was followed when Stalin came to power as leader of the The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe :: essays papers The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe Communism is like Prohibition - it's a good idea but it won't work" (Will Rogers, 1927) (1) This essay will give a brief introduction to communism. It will then discuss the various factors which combined to bring about the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe. It will examine each of these factors and evaluate the effect of each. Finally it will attempt to assertain whether Rogers' opinion (see above quotation) on Communism is true, that is, whether communism was truly doomed to fail from the start, or whether its collapse was a result of external influences. Communism is based on the ideas and teachings of Karl Marx as modified by Lenin. At its most basic, the ideal of communism is a system in which everyone is seen as equal and wealth is distributed equally among the people. There is no private ownership. The state owns and controls all enterprises and property. The state is run by one leading elite. The Soviet model of communism was based on these ideals. All opposition parties were banned although parties who were sympathetic to communism and who shared the communist ideals were allowed. All power was concentrated into the hands of the Communist party. Free press and civil liberties were suppressed. Censorship and propaganda were widely used. There was state ownership of the economy. No private enterprise was allowed. There was a collectivisation of agriculture. The Communist Party invaded and controlled every aspect of political, social, cultural and economic life. It was a totalitarian state with complete Communist control over all facets of life. In the early years, and up until Gorbachev's "new regime", the use of force and terror as a means of maintaining control was widespread. The first factor which contributed to the failure and eventual collapse of communism was the fact that the Communist party's domination was illegitimate from the beginning. Lenin came to power after a bloody Civil War between those who supported Lenin and those who opposed the Soviet regime. To Lenin, defeat was unthinkable and he was prepared to make any and every sacrifice to win the war and save "the revolution". The forcible requisitioning of food and supplies was approved by Lenin. This could only be achieved by enforcing strict and absolute discipline at every level of society. Terror was to become the chief instrument of power and Lenin was to assume the role of dictator. This was a phenomenon which was to become a symbol of communist regimes throughout their lifetime. This trend was followed when Stalin came to power as leader of the

The Love Song of J, Alfred Prufrock Essay -- Literary Analysis, T.S. E

The poem â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† written by T.S. Eliot is a depiction of sadness and a disillusioned narrator. While reading this poem, one senses that the narrator is disturbed and has maybe given up hope, and that he feels he is just an actor in a tedious drama At the very beginning of the poem, Eliot uses a quote from Dante’s â€Å"Inferno†, preparing the poem’s reader to expect a vision of hell. This device seems to ask the reader to accept that what they are about to be told by the poem’s narrator was not supposed to be revealed to the living world, as Dante was exposed to horrors in the Inferno that were not supposed to be revealed to the world of the living. This comparison is frightening and intriguing, and casts a shadow on the poem and its narrator before it has even begun. J. Alfred Prufrock is anxious, self-concsious, and depressed. The first half of the poem creates a sense of place. The narrator invites us to go â€Å"through certain half-deserted streets† on an evening he has just compared to an unconscious patient (4). To think of an evening as a corpselike event is disturbing, but effective in that the daytime is the time of the living, and the night time is the time of the dead. He is anxious and apprehensive, and evokes a sense of debauchery and shadows. Lines 15-22 compare the night’s fog to the actions of a typical cat, making the reader sense the mystery of a dark, foggy night in a familiar, tangible way. One might suppose that â€Å"In the room the women come and go/ Talking of Michelangelo† refers to a room in a brothel, where the seedy women for hire talk about elevated art between Johns (13). The narrator creates a tension in the image of dark deserted streets and shady activities in the dark. Then t... ...but the world of the living is too busy with the meaningless details of life to care what he has to say about it. This despair is evident in the repeated lines â€Å"That is not it at all/ That is not what I meant at all† (109). â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† is hardly a love song at all. That irony is clear in that the narrator’s voice is anxious, self-conscious, and depressed. It seems he has wasted his life or that life was wasted on him, and he regrets not being born as a creature that lives on the bottom of the sea. The very last lines of the poem, â€Å"we have lingered in the chambers of the sea By sea-girls wreathed with seaweed red and brown Till human voices wake us, and we drown.† (29-131) ask the reader to acknowledge that humanity has the capacity to imagine and create, and that it is sometimes the boredom of humanity that destroys that potential.

Essay --

Hank Aaron was a famous baseball player who was respectful to his teammates and his fans. His nickname was â€Å"Hammerin’ Hank†. At one time he led the league in the most home runs. He was born in a poor family and then grew up to be a great professional baseball player. He became one of the most admired baseball players in Major League history. He was born in Mobile, Alabama called â€Å"Down the Bay† on February 5, 1934. His real name was Henry Louis Aaron. He was the third of eight children. His mother’s name was Estella and his father’s name was Herbert. His dad was a tavern owner and a dry dock boilermaker’s assistant. His mother did not have a job until Hank was older. He lived in a town where there was segregation. Hank lived where it was rural and it was a lowly populated town. The town was fueled by a migration of farm workers looking for city work. Hank took an early interest in sports. Although the family had little money, and Hank took several jobs to try to help out, he spent a lot of time playing baseball at a neighborhood park. He had jobs such as mowing lawns, picking potatoes, and delivering ice. He started to love the game when his father’s local team formed out of the tavern he opened next to the family house called The Black Cat Inn. He played baseball with the loc al kids in the wide open fields. Until too many children to take care of at home, his mother worked in one of Mobile’s white households, where work was available for blacks as maids and cooks. Hank and his family moved to Toulminville, right outside of Mobile, at the age of eight. During his freshman and sophomore years, he attended Central High School, a segregated high school in Mobile where he stood out at both football and baseball. Fearin... ...rst all time in total accumulated bases with 6,856. He was second all time in at bats with 12,364. He was third all time in hits with 3,771. He was third all time in runs scored with 2,174. He was also third all time in games played with 3,298. He was elected into the Hall Of Fame in 1982. His autobiography, I had a Hammer, was published in 1990. In 1999, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of breaking Babe Ruth’s record, Major League announced the Hank Aaron Award, given to the best overall hitter in each league. I picked Hank Aaron because I want to be a baseball player just like him. I think he should be the President of baseball because, all of his special achievements. He was a very nice and skillful person and he will be remembered through all of baseball and will be remembered as one of the greatest baseball players ever in the history of baseball.

Irish Violence and the Troubles Essay

In this essay I will examine the effect of silence during the ‘troubles’ on individual and national identities; with particular interest to Seamus Deane’s Reading in the Dark, Tim Pat Coogan states that the term â€Å"Irish Troubles† refers to a whole history of violence and colonialism that Ireland has endured, over the last thousand years. ‘To the physical force school of Irish nationalism the Norman coming is generally regarded as the starting point for ‘eight hundred years of British oppression’’ (Coogan, 1996, p. 43). In addition to this, he explains that the term ‘troubles’, is now directed to the modern, twentieth century troubles. They mainly occurred during 1960 to 1998. The reason for the violence and resentment in Northern Ireland is due to the divisions between the nationalists (Roman Catholics) and the unionists (Protestants). The nationalists identify Northern Ireland as part of Ireland, not a separate country, and not another colony of the United Kingdom; whereas the unionists have great allegiance to Britain and regard their position as part of the UK with pride (Coogan, 1996, p. 1). But the Irish agony had been building up slowly also, rooted in complex factors, one of which geography, pre-dates the dawn of history: others involve the outworkings of two forms of colonialism, those of Mother Church and Mother England (Coogan, 1996, p. 1). Discrimination also factored into the tension between the two groups. The unionists rule over Northern Ireland affected most Catholic lives negatively, as they were a minority; they were discriminated in areas of employment, housing and education. Internment or also known as Operation Demetrius is one key issue that contributed to the beginning of the ‘troubles’ (Coogan, 1996. 30). This was introduced by the British Army and the Royal Ulster Constabulary; it involved arresting anyone who was accused of being against the professional military force immediately, without trial. These aspects stirred resentment from the nationalists and inconsequence caused violent rebellion (Coogan, 1996, p. 145). Thus, the violence that was carried out during the ‘troubles’, was chiefly by the IRA (Irish Republic Army), the Ulster Volunteer Force, the British Army and The Royal Ulster Constabulary (Coogan, 1996, p. 18). The aggression of the ‘troubles’ constructed Northern Ireland to be a place of great instability and tension. In his book The Wretched of the Earth, Frantz Fanon comments on the state of the colonised mind. Fanon was a psychiatrist and a theorist of post-colonialism. His work essentially centred on the developing countries, particularly Algeria. In order to break away from colonisation, Fanon advocates violence to the colonised and he is renowned for this factor (Fanon, 1967, pp. 10-11). His main concern is his patients, who are mentally ill. In his final chapter â€Å"Colonial War and Mental Disorders†, he explains that his patients suffer not merely by war but also from a colonial circumstance (Fanon, 1967, p. 235). But the doctors described it by portraying as a congenital stigma of the native, an ‘original’ part of his nervous system where, it was stated, it was possible to find the proof of a predominance of the extra-pyramidal system in the native. This contracture is in fact simply the postural accompaniment to the native’s reticence, the expression in muscular form of his rigidity and his refusal with regard to colonial authority (Fanon, 1967, p. 35). It is this colonial circumstance that inevitably yields the ‘native’ into a nervous, mental state. Fanon pays close attention to language and asserts that language is taken away from the colonised subject (Fanon, 1967, p. 194). The language of colonising involves removing the ‘native’s’ language and speech. Consequently, the colonised is silenced, and this is an oppressive act. ‘Silence’ is defined in The Oxford English Dictionary as an ‘absence of sound’ and ‘speech’; it can be an evasion of discussing something in particular, or it can be something that is forced upon (Soanes and Stevenson, 2008, p. 1342). Sara Maitland, author of A Book of Silence, attempts to understand silence and claims that the OED’s definition is far too indistinct (Maitland, 2008, p. 25). She explores the essence of it in several ways; her own life, history, religion, literature and travel. It is apparent from this book that ‘silence’ is an ambiguous phenomenon that consists of both positive and negative dimensions. Silence is abstract and transforms itself; it can be relative or a complete absence. Maitland observes that it is generally recognised negatively, her friend writes in a letter that, ‘silence is the place of death, of nothingness’ (Maitland, 2008, p. 8). She justifies that silence is only negative when it obstructs. Maitland describes the three forms of ‘interferences’; a subject’s tongue is cut out then they are silenced; if someone is imprisoned, they are silenced, since any noise they make will not be heard; if speech is construed as ‘worthless’ and ‘meaningless’, then it is silenced (Maitland, 2008, p. 29). This is very effective and useful for your average oppressor: calling someone ‘mad’, for example, means they can say what they like but no one will hear – this was the sort of silencing the Soviet Union went in for (Maitland, 2008, p. 9). This form of silence interrupts speech and creates a barrier that subjugates the potential speaker. It is oppressive and in effect it becomes a metaphorical prison. Seamus Deane’s novel Reading in the Dark was published in1996, two years before the end of the ‘troubles’. The novel is a bildungsroman, as it reports the protagonists’ growth from child to an adult, so the reader witnesses the protagonist’s youthful innocence transform with experience, as he comes of age. The narrator is an Irish Catholic boy who is growing up in Northern Ireland, Derry. It is constructed of smaller stories that are dated from 1945 up to 1971, where the protagonist matures into an adult. These stories are fragments of memories, conversations, myths and events that happened in the area. They contribute in narrating the protagonist’s growth from a young child to an adult. Thus with backdrop of the violent ‘troubles’, the narrator develops his understanding of who he is, by unearthing a profound family secret (Deane, 1996). Deane complicates the whole novel by playing with ‘silence’. The style of narration is one of the key methods that he employs to do this. Before the narration begins, the title ‘Reading in the Dark’ indicates towards a narrative of silence and so to a narrative that will be indecipherable. As mentioned before, this novel is a bildungsroman, a story of self-discovery and identity. Ensuing this, to read is to understand, and so the protagonist will understand and discover himself by ‘reading’. However, ‘reading in the dark’ is a paradox, as it is impossible and in result self-discovery is silenced. The opposite of dark is light, and light is generally associated with illumination and knowledge (Farquharson, 1999, p. 101). Whereas, darkness contains an absence, so it becomes the visual equivalent to silence. Deane implies through this understanding of the title that the unfolding of the narrative will be an intricate and complicated process. This displays that the colonial landscape of Northern Ireland and the ‘troubles’ create identity as problematic. Pre-eminent among them are the disfiguring effects of both colonialism and postcolonial nationalism alluded to above, the crisis of self-representation produced by colonialist discourse, and the dynamics of power and resistance, history and memory, language and identity within colonial relations. Read from postcolonial perspective, the novel could be described as an exploration of the problematic process of identity formation in a colonialist context (Harte, 2000, p. 152). As a result, Deane deliberately confirms through his title that self-discovery and understanding of identity is furthermore complex in a colonised state (Fanon, 1967, p. 182). In consequence, darkness obstructs light and silence obstructs articulation. Therefore, silence hinders the narration.